The human genome includes stretches of DNA composed of short tandem repeats (STRs). To date, hundreds of STR loci have been mapped in the human genome. The analysis of such STR loci and STRs is an important tool for genetic linkage studies, forensics, and new clinical diagnostics. For example, forensic case work typically involves separation and analysis of multiple loci. Some tests use the 6 loci test known as the “Second Generation Multiplex” (SGM), together with amelogenin (gender determining marker) and four additional loci, D351358; D19S433; D16S539 and D2S1338. Other commercially available kits simultaneously amplify 15 tetranucleotide STR loci and the amelogenin marker (See, e.g., AmpFISTR Identifiler PCR Amplification Kit). The United States Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), European Network of Forensic Science Institutes (ENFSI) and Interpol generally recognize results from kits including at least the thirteen core STR loci standardized under the Combined DNA Index System (CODIS): CSF1PO, D3S1358; D5S818; D7S820; D8S1179; D13S317; D165539; D18551; D21S11; vWA; FGA; TH01; and TPOX. For a general discussion, see Budowle, B. et al., “CODIS and PCR Based Short Tandem Repeat Loci: Law Enforcement Tools,” Second European Symposium on Human Identification, 1998, pages 73-88, hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.
Studies of the human genome also has revealed, and continues to reveal, the existence of specific mutations or polymorphisms. With increasing frequency, these mutations or polymorphisms are being associated with monogenetic and polygenetic diseases. As a result, the field of molecular diagnostics is growing and expanding. Molecular diagnostic testing uses polymorphic markers, such as, microsatellites and STRs, and the determination of mutations associated with neoplastic and other diseases. For example, the presence of certain viral infections, such as herpes simplex virus (HSV), cytomeglia virus (CMV) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) have been diagnosed using amplified and separated DNA fragments. Certain types of cancer diagnosis also is carried out using separation of amplified DNA fragments. Specifically, the diagnosis of B and T cell lymphomas fall into this category. When cancer occurs, a single cell having a single form of rearranged DNA grows at an elevated rate, leading to the predominance of that form of the gene. Separation and identification of the mutated gene can be carried out using conventional or microchip devices. For a discussion of the application of sequencing and separation methods and apparatus to molecular diagnostics, see generally, “Use of Capillary Electrophoresis for High Throughput Screening in Biomedical Applications, A Minireview,” by Bosserhoff et al. in Combinational Chemistry & High Throughput Screening, 2000, issue 3, pages 455-66 and “Exploiting Sensitive Laser-Induced Fluorescence Detection on Electrophoretic Microchips for Executing Rapid Clinical Diagnostics,” by Ferrance et al. in Luminescence, 2001, issue 16, pages 79-88, the disclosures of which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety.
A typical STR locus is less than 400 base pairs in length, and includes single repetitive units that are two to seven base pairs in length. STRs can define alleles which are highly polymorphic due to large variations between individuals in the number of repeats. For example, four loci in the human genome CSF1PO, TPOX, THO1, and vWA (abbreviated CTTv) are characterized by an STR allele that differs in the number of repeats. Two repeating units are found at these loci: AATG for TPDX and THO1, and AGAT for CSF1PO and vWA.
In general, STR analysis involves generating an STR profile from a DNA sample, and comparing the generated STR profile with other STR profiles. Generating an STR profile typically involves amplifying an STR locus using PCR or another amplification method, dying or tagging STRs within a DNA sample, separating the tagged STRs within the sample using electrophoresis (applying an electric field), and recording the tagged STRs using a laser or other fluorescence excitation device and a galvanometer or other device to direct the fluorescence excitation device towards a sample and then to a light detector.
One procedure for generating an STR profile uses an elongated gel plate (or slab gel) that is approximately 35 cm long. In general, this process (hereinafter referred to as “the gel plate process”) involves depositing a tagged nucleic acid sample (most often DNA, but as one skilled in the art will appreciate, RNA may also be used for some applications) on an area of the gel plate, separating the STRs within the tagged DNA sample on the gel plate using electrophoresis, and scanning the gel plate with a detector to record the tagged STRs. Typically, the gel plate process requires two to three hours to complete.
Another procedure for generating an STR profile uses a capillary that is 50 to 75 microns in diameter. This process (hereinafter referred to as “the capillary process”) generally involves electrokinetically injecting a tagged DNA sample at one end of a capillary, and drawing the sample through the capillary using electrophoresis to separate the STRs. A laser beam is used to excite the tagged STRs within the sample to cause the tagged STRs to fluoresce. The fluorescence emitted by the STRs is detected by scanning a portion of the capillary with a fluorescence excitation device, such as, for example a laser.
Typically, STR separation is faster in the capillary process than in the gel plate process. In general, an increase in electrophoresis current results in an increase in STR separation speed, and a higher electrophoresis current typically can be applied to the capillary than to the gel plate because the capillary more easily dissipates heat (caused by the current) that would otherwise skew the separation results. A typical capillary process requires between 10 minutes and one hour to complete.
However, controlling temperature is a critical factor related to the precision of capillary-based DNA separation devices. It illustrates why prior art devices are not suitable for rugged, uncontrolled or semi-controlled environments or applications. Prior art devices utilize an array of sixteen capillaries that are injected and run simultaneously at the same temperature, so intra-run precision can be expected to be high, and data sized relative to an allelic ladder within the run can be expected to be reliable. However, inter-run precision appears to be dependent upon temperature fluctuations. Whenever the temperature changes from run to run, the unknown fragments may not be able to be sized by an allelic ladder in a different run. Fragments lying outside of the bin may be called “off-ladder” alleles or mistyped by falling into an adjacent bin. As a result, samples analyzed using this type of device may be mischaracterized, thereby significantly decreasing the quality of results obtained.
Another procedure for generating an STR profile uses a microfluidic chip process. Microfluidics technology is a term generally used to describe systems fabricated using semiconductor manufacturing techniques to create structures that can manipulate tiny volumes (microliter, nanoliter, or picoliters) of liquid, replacing macroscale analytical chemistry equipment with devices that could be hundreds or thousands times smaller and more efficient. A microfluidic device (chip) is generally characterized by the presence of channels with at least one dimension less than 1 millimeter. Similarly, a microchannel is a channel with at least one dimension that is less than about 1 millimeter. Microfluidic chips offer at least two major advantages as compared to conventional devices. First, the volume of sample and reagents required within these channels is small, allowing minimal sample sizes (generally a few nanoliters) and reducing reagent costs. Second, a system containing such channels and similarly sized electrical or mechanical devices allows a wide array of complex sample manipulations to be performed within a small volume. Finally, a system containing such small structures can be highly multiplexed to allow for simultaneous processing of multiple samples and therefore high throughput operation.
Chips generally are composed of durable transparent glass. A typical chip consists of one or more channels fabricated within a planar substrate with access points for samples to be introduced into the channel. In one embodiment, a channel can consist of a long arm (sometimes referred to as the “long channel”) and short arm (sometimes referred to as the “short channel”). An individual STR separation can be performed at each channel. The short arm intersects the long channel near one end of the long arm and at an angle. In some chips, the short arm includes a jog where it intersects the long channel such that portions of the short channel are parallel but not co-linear. Typically, a chip is formed using photolithography and chemical etching techniques to produce channel structures in fused silica wafers. These etched channel structures are bonded to an unetched fused silica wafer to form a complete channel structure.
An STR separation process that uses a chip generally involves orienting the microchip so that it and the channels within lie horizontally (i.e., perpendicular to the direction of gravity) and depositing a sample of tagged DNA over a hole in the upper surface of the microchip that connects with one end of the short channel of a channel pair. Next, the tagged DNA sample is drawn horizontally through the short channel using electrophoresis such that STRs within the sample are partially separated along the short channel. Then, a portion of the sample at the intersection of the long and short channels is further separated along the long channel using electrophoresis. A laser excites the tagged STR which fluoresces. The fluorescences emitted by the STRs is detected and recorded in a manner similar to that of the gel plate and capillary processes.
Conventional high-speed DNA genotyping using a chip is described in an article entitled “High-Speed DNA Genotyping Using Microfabricated Capillary Array Electrophoresis Chips,” Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 69, No. 11, Jun. 1, 1997 on pages 2181 through 2186, the teachings of which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety. Ultra-high-speed DNA sequencing using capillary electrophoresis chips is described in an article entitled “Ultra-High-Speed DNA Sequencing Using Capillary Electrophoresis Chips,” Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 67, No. 20, Oct. 15, 1995 on pages 3676 through 3680, the teachings of which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety.
U.S. Pat. No. 6,207,031 issued to Adourian et al., the teachings of which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety, describes an automated separation device useful in allelic profiling assays. The separation device described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,207,031 includes a microfabricated channel device having a channel of sufficient dimensions in cross-section and length to permit a sample to be analyzed rapidly. Specifically, the microfabricated channel is filled with a replaceable polyacrylamide matrix operated under denaturing conditions and a fluorescently labeled STR ladder is used as an internal standard for allele identification. Samples analyzed by the assay method can be prepared by standard procedures and only small volumes of assay are required per analysis. This device is capable of repetitive operation and is suitable for automated high-speed and high-throughput applications.
While the separation devices described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,207,031 are efficient at separating a large number of samples in a relatively short amount of time, the device of U.S. Pat. No. 6,207,031 needs to be located in a laboratory setting under a controlled environment. As a result, in field use, such as, for example, use of the above-described devices at a point of care location, such as a doctor's office or at an emergency disaster site is impractical due to the size, energy requirements, and operational (i.e., minimal vibrational impact on sensitive optical equipment) constraints of these devices. In addition, these devices also have high power consumption that limits the utility of these devices in field use.
Thus, there is an unmet need in the industry to ruggedize sequencing and separation devices so that reliable, timely measurements can be obtained in the field or in a non-controlled environment. Further, there is an industry need to provide a commercially available suitably ruggedized sequencing and/or separation device using microfluidics.